Compositions and methods for treating intestinal hyperpermeability

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides methods, compositions, and kits for treating intestinal hyperpermeability in a subject in need thereof, including conditions such as hyperglycemia and underlying diseases such as diabetes, autism, fibromyalgia, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), graft versus host disease (GVHD), HIV/AIDS, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), celiac disease, eczema, psoriasis, acute pancreatitis, Parkinson&#39;s disease, depression, chronic fatigue syndrome, asthma, multiple sclerosis, arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, alcoholic cirrhosis, environmental enteropathy, or kwashiorkor.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.15/695,327, filed Sep. 5, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 15/138,733, filed on Apr. 26, 2016, now U.S. Pat.No. 9,757,348, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.No. 14/520,116, filed on Oct. 21, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,326,962,which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No.14/062,165, filed on Oct. 24, 2013, now abandoned, which claims thebenefit of U.S. Patent Application No. 61/894,261, filed on Oct. 22,2013, the entire contents of which are incorporated by reference herein.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present inventions relate generally to compositions, kits, andmethods for the treatment of intestinal hyperpermeability.

BACKGROUND

The intestinal epithelium separates luminal contents from theinterstitium. This function is primarily determined by the integrity ofthe epithelium and the tight junction that seals the paracellular space.These intestinal tight junctions are selectively permeable. Thispermeability can be increased physiologically in response to thepresence of luminal nutrients. Permeability can also be increasedpathologically by mucosal immune cells and cytokines, the entericnervous system, and by pathogens. It is believed to be critical that theintestinal mucosa prevent potentially dangerous contents of theintestinal lumen, including the microorganisms that reside there fromentering internal areas and the systemic circulation. There are severalclinical conditions, both intestinal and systemic, that are associatedwith compromised intestinal barrier function.

A possible link between intestinal hyperpermeability and disease hasbeen proposed. This has led to a sharp increase in the diagnosis ofintestinal hyperpermeability, also known as “leaky gut syndrome.”Diseases that have been correlated with intestinal hyperpermeabilityinclude diabetes, autism, fibromyalgia, inflammatory bowel disease(IBD), graft versus host disease (GVHD), HIV/AIDS, multiple organdysfunction syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), celiac disease,eczema, psoriasis, acute pancreatitis, Parkinson's disease, depression,chronic fatigue syndrome, asthma, multiple sclerosis, arthritis,ankylosing spondylitis, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, alcoholiccirrhosis, environmental enteropathy, and kwashiorkor. It is believedthat restoration of the intestinal barrier will improve or cure theunderlying disease. Several drug targets that could potentially promotebarrier restoration have been proposed, but none have proven safe andeffective.

Thus, there remains a need for the development of safe and effectivetreatments or cures for intestinal hypersensitivity and numerousunderlying diseases.

SUMMARY

The present invention provides methods, compositions, and kits fortreating intestinal hyperpermeability in a subject in need thereof,including underlying conditions including hyperglycemia, and includingunderlying diseases such as diabetes, autism, fibromyalgia, inflammatorybowel disease (IBD), graft versus host disease (GVHD), HIV/AIDS,multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS),celiac disease, eczema, psoriasis, acute pancreatitis, Parkinson'sdisease, depression, chronic fatigue syndrome, asthma, multiplesclerosis, arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, nonalcoholic fatty liverdisease, alcoholic cirrhosis, environmental enteropathy, or kwashiorkor.In certain embodiments, the invention provides methods comprisingadministering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of atyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor. In certain embodiments, the inventionprovides methods comprising administering to a subject in need thereofan effective amount of a tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor and a p450 3A4promoter.

In other embodiments, the invention provides pharmaceutical compositionscomprising a tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor and a p450 3A4 promoter.Also provided are kits comprising a tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor and ap450 3A4 promoter together with packaging for same.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

The present subject matter may be understood more readily by referenceto the following detailed description which forms a part of thisdisclosure. It is to be understood that this invention is not limited tothe specific products, methods, conditions or parameters describedand/or shown herein, and that the terminology used herein is for thepurpose of describing particular embodiments by way of example only andis not intended to be limiting of the claimed invention.

Unless otherwise defined herein, scientific and technical terms used inconnection with the present application shall have the meanings that arecommonly understood by those of ordinary skill in the art. Further,unless otherwise required by context, singular terms shall includepluralities and plural terms shall include the singular.

As employed above and throughout the disclosure, the following terms andabbreviations, unless otherwise indicated, shall be understood to havethe following meanings.

In the present disclosure the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the”include the plural reference, and reference to a particular numericalvalue includes at least that particular value, unless the contextclearly indicates otherwise. Thus, for example, a reference to “acompound” is a reference to one or more of such compounds andequivalents thereof known to those skilled in the art, and so forth. Theterm “plurality”, as used herein, means more than one. When a range ofvalues is expressed, another embodiment incudes from the one particularand/or to the other particular value. Similarly, when values areexpressed as approximations, by use of the antecedent “about,” it isunderstood that the particular value forms another embodiment. Allranges are inclusive and combinable.

As used herein, the terms “component,” “composition,” “composition ofcompounds,” “compound,” “drug,” “pharmacologically active agent,”“active agent,” “therapeutic,” “therapy,” “treatment,” or “medicament”are used interchangeably herein to refer to a compound or compounds orcomposition of matter which, when administered to a subject (human oranimal) induces a desired pharmacological and/or physiologic effect bylocal and/or systemic action.

As used herein, the terms “treatment” or “therapy” (as well as differentforms thereof) include preventative (e.g., prophylactic), curative orpalliative treatment. As used herein, the term “treating” includesalleviating or reducing at least one adverse or negative effect orsymptom of a condition, disease or disorder. This condition, disease ordisorder can be intestinal hyperpermeability.

As employed above and throughout the disclosure the term “effectiveamount” refers to an amount effective, at dosages, and for periods oftime necessary, to achieve the desired result with respect to thetreatment of the relevant disorder, condition, or side effect. It willbe appreciated that the effective amount of components of the presentinvention will vary from patient to patient not only with respect to theparticular compound, component or composition selected, the route ofadministration, and the ability of the components to elicit a desiredresult in the individual, but also with respect to factors such as thedisease state or severity of the condition to be alleviated, hormonelevels, age, sex, weight of the individual, the state of being of thepatient, and the severity of the pathological condition being treated,concurrent medication or special diets then being followed by theparticular patient, and other factors which those skilled in the artwill recognize, with the appropriate dosage being at the discretion ofthe attending physician. Dosage regimes may be adjusted to provideimproved therapeutic response. An effective amount is also one in whichany toxic or detrimental effects of the components are outweighed by thetherapeutically beneficial effects.

“Pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to those compounds, materials,compositions, and/or dosage forms which are, within the scope of soundmedical judgment, suitable for contact with the tissues of human beingsand animals without excessive toxicity, irritation, allergic response,or other problem complications commensurate with a reasonablebenefit/risk ratio.

“High blood glucose level” is used interchangeably with “hyperglycemia”herein and is defined as a fasting plasma blood glucose level of 126mg/dl or greater on two separate occasions,

Within the present invention, the disclosed compounds may be prepared inthe form of pharmaceutically acceptable salts. “Pharmaceuticallyacceptable salts” refer to derivatives of the disclosed compoundswherein the parent compound is modified by making acid or base saltsthereof. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, but arenot limited to, mineral or organic acid salts of basic residues such asamines; alkali or organic salts of acidic residues such as carboxylicacids; and the like. The pharmaceutically acceptable salts include theconventional non-toxic salts or the quaternary ammonium salts of theparent compound formed, for example, from non-toxic inorganic or organicacids. For example, such conventional non-toxic salts include thosederived from inorganic acids such as hydrochloric, hydrobromic,sulfuric, sulfamic, phosphoric, nitric and the like; and the saltsprepared from organic acids such as acetic, propionic, succinic,glycolic, stearic, lactic, malic, tartaric, citric, ascorbic, pamoic,maleic, hydroxymaleic, phenylacetic, glutamic, benzoic, salicylic,sulfanilic, 2-acetoxybenzoic, fumaric, toluenesulfonic, methanesulfonic,ethane disulfonic, oxalic, isethionic, and the like. Thesephysiologically acceptable salts are prepared by methods known in theart, e.g., by dissolving the free amine bases with an excess of the acidin aqueous alcohol, or neutralizing a free carboxylic acid with analkali metal base such as a hydroxide, or with an amine.

Compounds described herein can be prepared in alternate forms. Forexample, many amino-containing compounds can be used or prepared as anacid addition salt. Often such salts improve isolation and handlingproperties of the compound. For example, depending on the reagents,reaction conditions and the like, compounds as described herein can beused or prepared, for example, as their hydrochloride or tosylate salts.Isomorphic crystalline forms, all chiral and racemic forms, N-oxide,hydrates, solvates, and acid salt hydrates, are also contemplated to bewithin the scope of the present invention.

Certain acidic or basic compounds of the present invention may exist aszwitterions. All forms of the compounds, including free acid, free baseand zwitterions, are contemplated to be within the scope of the presentinvention. It is well known in the art that compounds containing bothamino and carboxy groups often exist in equilibrium with theirzwitterionic forms. Thus, any of the compounds described herein thatcontain, for example, both amino and carboxy groups, also includereference to their corresponding zwitterions.

The term “stereoisomers” refers to compounds that have identicalchemical constitution, but differ as regards the arrangement of theatoms or groups in space. The term “enantiomers” refers to stereoisomersthat are mirror images of each other that are non-superimposable.

The term “administering” means either directly administering a compoundor composition of the present invention, or administering a prodrug,derivative or analog which will form an equivalent amount of the activecompound or substance within the body.

The terms “subject,” “individual,” and “patient” are usedinterchangeably herein, and refer to an animal, for example a human, towhom treatment, including prophylactic treatment, with thepharmaceutical composition according to the present invention, isprovided. The term “subject” as used herein refers to human andnon-human animals. The terms “non-human animals” and “non-human mammals”are used interchangeably herein and include all vertebrates, e.g.,mammals, such as non-human primates, (particularly higher primates),sheep, dog, rodent, (e.g. mouse or rat), guinea pig, goat, pig, cat,rabbits, cows, horses and non-mammals such as reptiles, amphibians,chickens, and turkeys.

The term “inhibitor” as used herein includes compounds that inhibit theexpression or activity of a protein, polypeptide or enzyme and does notnecessarily mean complete inhibition of expression and/or activity.Rather, the inhibition includes inhibition of the expression and/oractivity of a protein, polypeptide or enzyme to an extent, and for atime, sufficient to produce the desired effect.

The term “promoter” as used herein includes compounds that promote theexpression or activity of a protein, polypeptide or enzyme and does notnecessarily mean complete promotion of expression and/or activity.Rather, the promotion includes promotion of the expression and/oractivity of a protein, polypeptide or enzyme to an extent, and for atime, sufficient to produce the desired effect.

While not intending to be bound by any particular mechanism ofoperation, it is believed that the tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitorsaccording to the present invention function by decreasing the amount ofadrenaline secreted into the bloodstream.

Methods of treating intestinal hyperpermeability in a subject areprovided. Such methods can include administering to a subject in needthereof an effective amount of a tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor. Othersuch methods include administering to a subject in need thereof aneffective amount of tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor and a p450 3A4promoter. This tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor and the p450 3A4 promotercan be administered simultaneously.

Administration of the tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor or the tyrosinehydroxylase inhibitor and the p450 3A4 promoter can be through variousroutes, including orally, nasally subcutaneously, intravenously,intramuscularly, transdermally, vaginally, rectally or in anycombination thereof. Transdermal administration can be effected using,for example, oleic acid, 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, dodecylnonaoxyethyleneglycol monoether.

In other suitable embodiments of the invention the tyrosine hydroxylaseinhibitor and the p450 3A4 promoter are administered during a cycleconsisting of five to seven days of administering the tyrosinehydroxylase inhibitor and the p450 3A4 promoter, and one to two days ofnot administering the tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor and the p450 3A4promoter. In some suitable embodiments of the invention, at least six ofsaid cycles of administration are performed. In some suitableembodiments of the invention, 25 mg of the tyrosine hydroxylaseinhibitor is administered.

In certain embodiments, the tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor is a tyrosinederivative. The tyrosine derivative can be capable of existing indifferent isomeric forms, including stereoisomers and enantiomers. Thetyrosine derivative can, for example, exist in both L-form or D-form.The tyrosine derivative can, for example, also exist in a racemic form.Representative tyrosine derivatives include one or more of methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(2-chloro-4 hydroxyphenyl) propanoate, D-tyrosine ethylester hydrochloride, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(2,6-dichloro-3,4-dimethoxyphenyl) propanoateH-D-tyrosine(tBu)-allyl ester hydrochloride, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-4,5-dimethoxyphenyl) propanoate, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(2-chloro-3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl) propanoate, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(4-[(2-chloro-6-fluorophenyl) methoxy] phenyl)propanoate, methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(2-chloro-3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)propanoate, methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-5-fluoro-4-hydroxyphenyl)propanoate, diethyl 2-(acetylamino)-2-(4-[(2-chloro-6-fluorobenzyl) oxy]benzyl malonate, methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-4-methoxyphenyl)propanoate, methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-4-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenyl)propanoate, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(2,6-dichloro-3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl) propanoate,methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-4-hydroxyphenyl) propanoate,H-DL-tyrosine methyl ester hydrochloride, H-3,5-diiodo-tyrosine methylester hydrochloride, H-D-3,5-diiodo-tyrosine methyl ester hydrochloride,H-D-tyrosine methyl ester hydrochloride, D-tyrosine methyl esterhydrochloride, D-tyrosine-methyl ester hydrochloride, methylD-tyrosinate hydrochloride, H-D-tyrosine methyl ester-hydrochloride,D-tyrosine methyl ester hydrochloride, H-D-tyrosine methylester-hydrochloride, (2R)-2-amino-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) propionic acid,(2R)-2-amino-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) methyl ester hydrochloride, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) propanoate hydrochloride, methyl(2R)-2-azanyl-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) propanoate hydrochloride,3-chloro-L-tyrosine, 3-nitro-L-tyrosine, 3-nitro-L-tyrosine ethyl esterhydrochloride, DL-m-tyrosine, DL-o-tyrosine, Boc-tyrosine (3,5-I2)-OSu,Fmoc-tyrosine(3-NO2)-OH, α-methyl-L-tyrosine, α-methyl-D-tyrosine, andα-methyl-DL-tyrosine. In certain embodiments of the invention, thetyrosine derivative is α-methyl-L-tyrosine. In other embodiments, thetyrosine derivative is α-methyl-D-tyrosine. In other embodiments, thetyrosine derivative is α-methyl-DL-tyrosine in a racemic form.

In methods of the invention, 60 mg of the tyrosine derivative isadministered orally and 0.25 mL of a 2 mg/mL suspension of the tyrosinederivative is administered subcutaneously.

Representative p450 3A4 promoters include 5, 5-diphenylhydantoin,valproic acid and carbamazepine. In a suitable embodiment of theinvention, the composition includes 5 mg to 25 mg of 5,5-diphenylhydantoin. Representative subjects include mammals. In certainembodiments, the mammal is a human.

In some embodiments of the invention, methods further comprisingassessing progression of said intestinal hyperpermeability in saidsubject are provided. This assessing step can be performed before saidadministering step or after said administering step.

Representative conditions that can be treated with methods of thepresent invention include hyperglycemia. Symptoms of the conditionhyperglycemia can include: polyphagia, polydipsia, polyuria, blurredvision, fatigue (sleepiness), weight loss, poor wound healing (cuts,scrapes, etc.), dry mouth, dry or itchy skin, tingling in feet or heels,erectile dysfunction, recurrent infections, external ear infections(swimmer's ear), cardiac arrhythmia, stupor, coma, and seizures.Representative diseases that can be treated with methods of the presentinvention include diabetes, autism, fibromyalgia, inflammatory boweldisease (IBD), graft versus host disease (GVHD), HIV/AIDS, multipleorgan dysfunction syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), celiacdisease, eczema, psoriasis, acute pancreatitis, Parkinson's disease,depression, chronic fatigue syndrome, asthma, multiple sclerosis,arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease,alcoholic cirrhosis, environmental enteropathy, or kwashiorkor.

Administration of pharmaceutically active molecules such as inhibitorand/or promoters can be through various routes, including orally,nasally, subcutaneously, intravenously, intramuscularly, transdermally,vaginally, rectally or in any combination thereof. Transdermaladministration can be effected using, for example, oleic acid,1-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, dodecylnonaoxyethylene glycol monoether.

The tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor can be administered during a cycleconsisting of five to seven days of administering the tyrosinehydroxylase inhibitor, and one to two days of not administering thetyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor. The tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor canbe administered over the course of at least six said cycles. In onesuitable embodiment of the invention, the tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitoris administered daily. In another suitable embodiment of the invention,the tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor is administered multiple times perday.

Representative treatment methods according to the invention compriseadministering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of atyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor or a tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor and ap450 3A4 promoter are provided.

Suitable embodiments can include a pharmaceutical composition comprisinga tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor and a p450 3A4 promoter. The tyrosinehydroxylase inhibitor can be a tyrosine derivative.

Also provided herein are kits comprising a tyrosine hydroxylaseinhibitor and a p450 3A4 promoter together with packaging for same. Thetyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor can be a tyrosine derivative. Thetyrosine derivative can include tyrosine derivatives capable of existingin isomeric form. The tyrosine derivatives can include tyrosinederivatives in its L-form or in its D-form. The tyrosine derivative can,for example, also exist in a racemic form. Representative tyrosinederivatives include one or more of methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(2-chloro-4hydroxyphenyl) propanoate, D-tyrosine ethyl ester hydrochloride, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(2,6-dichloro-3,4-dimethoxyphenyl) propanoateH-D-tyrosine(tBu)-allyl ester hydrochloride, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-4,5-dimethoxyphenyl) propanoate, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(2-chloro-3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl) propanoate, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(4-[(2-chloro-6-fluorophenyl) methoxy] phenyl)propanoate, methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(2-chloro-3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)propanoate, methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-5-fluoro-4-hydroxyphenyl)propanoate, diethyl 2-(acetylamino)-2-(4-[(2-chloro-6-fluorobenzyl) oxy]benzyl malonate, methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-4-methoxyphenyl)propanoate, methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-4-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenyl)propanoate, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(2,6-dichloro-3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl) propanoate,methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-4-hydroxyphenyl) propanoate,H-DL-tyrosine-methyl ester hydrochloride, H-3,5-diiodo-tyrosine-methylester hydrochloride, H-D-3,5-diiodo-tyrosine-methyl ester hydrochloride,H-D-tyrosine-methyl ester hydrochloride, D-tyrosine methyl esterhydrochloride, D-tyrosine-ome hydrochloride, methyl D-tyrosinatehydrochloride, H-D-tyrosine-methyl ester-hydrochloride, D-tyrosinemethyl ester hydrochloride, H-D-tyrosine-methyl ester-hydrochloride,(2R)-2-amino-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) propionic acid,(2R)-2-amino-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) methyl ester hydrochloride, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) propanoate hydrochloride methyl(2R)-2-azanyl-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) propanoate hydrochloride,3-chloro-L-tyrosine, 3-nitro-L-tyrosine, 3-nitro-L-tyrosine ethyl esterhydrochloride, DL-m-tyrosine, DL-o-tyrosine, Boc-tyrosine (3,5-I2)-OSu,Fmoc-tyrosine(3-NO2)-OH, α-methyl-L-tyrosine, α-methyl-D-tyrosine, andα-methyl-DL-tyrosine. In certain embodiments of the invention, thetyrosine derivative is α-methyl-L-tyrosine. In other specificembodiments of the invention, the tyrosine derivative isα-methyl-D-tyrosine. In other embodiments, the tyrosine derivative isα-methyl-DL-tyrosine in a racemic form.

The following examples are provided to supplement the prior disclosureand to provide a better understanding of the subject matter describedherein. These examples should not be considered to limit the describedsubject matter. It is understood that the examples and embodimentsdescribed herein are for illustrative purposes only and that variousmodifications or changes in light thereof will be apparent to personsskilled in the art and are to be included within, and can be madewithout departing from, the true scope of the invention.

Example 1

Two-hundred patients were initially screened. Thirty subjects meetingthe study criteria consented. Nine (9) subjects had high blood glucoselevels (hyperglycemia) prior to consenting to the study.

A high blood glucose level (hyperglycemia) is defined as a fastingplasma blood glucose level of 126 mg/dl or greater on two separateoccasions, The average patient age was sixty-two years old and themedian patient age was sixty years old. Six of the patients were femaleand three of the patients were male. Five of the patients were fifty tosixty years old and four of the patients were over the age of sixty.

The patients in the study were administered a treatment regimen thatincluded a tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor (i.e., α-methyl-DL tyrosine),a melanin promoter (i.e., melanotan II), a p450 3A4 promoter (i.e., 5,5-diphenylhydantoin), and a leucine aminopeptidase inhibitor (i.e.,N-[(2S,3R)-3-amino-2-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyryl]-L-leucine). Thesecompounds were administered on each of five days per week for a periodof six weeks, with one or two days off between weekly cycles. Bloodglucose level was monitored for all subjects biweekly. Blood glucoselevels were determined by daily blood glucose tests followed-up withlaboratory blood glucose tests every two weeks.

After approximately two to four weeks, all nine of the subjects hadnormal blood glucose levels defined as a fasting plasma blood glucoselevel of 125 mg/dl or lower on two separate occasions.

Overall, the above-noted treatment was well tolerated by the subjects,with no adverse events related to the treatment, and responses have beendocumented to the treatment 100%.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of treating celiac disease comprisingadministering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of atyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor that is at least one of methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(2-chloro-4 hydroxyphenyl) propanoate, D-tyrosine ethylester hydrochloride, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(2,6-dichloro-3,4-dimethoxyphenyl) propanoateH-D-tyrosine (tBu)-allyl ester hydrochloride, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-4,5-dimethoxyphenyl) propanoate, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(2-chloro-3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl) propanoate, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(4-[(2-chloro-6-fluorophenyl) methoxy] phenyl)propanoate, methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(2-chloro-3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)propanoate, methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-5-fluoro-4-hydroxyphenyl)propanoate, diethyl 2-(acetylamino)-2-(4-[(2-chloro-6-fluorobenzyl) oxy]benzyl malonate, methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-4-methoxyphenyl)propanoate, methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-4-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenyl)propanoate, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(2,6-dichloro-3-hydroxy-4-methoxyphenyl) propanoate,methyl (2R)-2-amino-3-(3-chloro-4-hydroxyphenyl) propanoate,H-DL-tyrosine-methyl ester hydrochloride, H-3,5-diiodo-tyrosine-methylester hydrochloride, H-D-3,5-diiodo-tyrosine-methyl ester hydrochloride,H-D-tyrosine methyl ester hydrochloride, D-tyrosine methyl esterhydrochloride, methyl D-tyrosinate hydrochloride, D-tyrosine methylester hydrochloride, (2R)-2-amino-3-(4 hydroxyphenyl) propionic acid,(2R)-2-amino-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) methyl ester hydrochloride, methyl(2R)-2-amino-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) propanoate hydrochloride, methyl(2R)-2-azanyl-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl) propanoate hydrochloride,3-chloro-L-tyrosine, 3-nitro-L-tyrosine, 3-nitro-L-tyrosine ethyl esterhydrochloride, DL-m-tyrosine, DL-o-tyrosine, Boc-tyrosine (3,5-I₂)-OSu,Fmoctyrosine(3-NO₂)-OH, α-methyl-L-tyrosine, α-methyl-D-tyrosine, andα-methyl DL-tyrosine.
 2. The method of claim 1 further comprisingadministering a p450 3A4 promoter.
 3. The method of claim 2 wherein thetyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor and the p450 3A4 promoter areadministered simultaneously.
 4. The method of claim 2 wherein thetyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor and the p450 3A4 promoter areadministered orally, subcutaneously, intravenously, transdermally,vaginally, rectally or in any combination thereof.
 5. The method ofclaim 4 wherein the transdermal administration is performed incombination with oleic acid, 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, ordodecylnonaoxyethylene glycol monoether.
 6. The method of claim 1wherein the tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor and the p450 3A4 promoter areadministered during a cycle consisting of five to seven days ofadministering the tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor and the p450 3A4promoter, and one to two days of not administering the tyrosinehydroxylase inhibitor and the p450 3A4 promoter.
 7. The method of claim6 that includes at least six of said cycles.
 8. The method of claim 1comprising administering α-methyl-D-tyrosine to said subject.
 9. Themethod of claim 1 comprising administering α-methyl-DL-tyrosine in aracemic form to said subject.
 10. The method of claim 1 wherein 60 mg ofthe tyrosine derivative is administered orally and 0.25 mL of a 2 mg/mLsuspension of the tyrosine derivative is administered subcutaneously.11. The method of claim 2 wherein the p450 3A4 promoter is 5,5-diphenylhydantoin.
 12. The method of claim 2 wherein the p450 3A4promoter is valproic acid or carbamazepine.
 13. The method of claim 1wherein the subject is a human.
 14. The method of claim 1 comprisingadministering α-methyl-L-tyrosine to said subject.